---
title: "AI Exposure and Media Salience Mismatch"
subtitle: "Which Occupations Get the Narrative? Evidence from Croatian Digital Media"
author: "Media Analysis Research"
date: today
format:
html:
theme: cosmo
toc: true
toc-depth: 3
toc-location: left
number-sections: true
code-fold: true
code-tools: true
code-summary: "Show code"
df-print: paged
fig-width: 10
fig-height: 6
fig-dpi: 300
embed-resources: true
execute:
warning: false
message: false
echo: true
---
```{r}
#| label: setup
#| include: false
# ==========================================================================
# PACKAGES
# ==========================================================================
required_packages <- c(
"dplyr", "tidyr", "stringr", "stringi", "lubridate", "forcats", "tibble",
"ggplot2", "scales", "patchwork", "ggrepel",
"knitr", "kableExtra",
"fixest",
"sandwich", "lmtest",
"broom",
"zoo",
"corrplot"
)
for (pkg in required_packages) {
if (!require(pkg, character.only = TRUE, quietly = TRUE)) {
install.packages(pkg, quiet = TRUE)
library(pkg, character.only = TRUE)
}
}
options(dplyr.summarise.inform = FALSE, scipen = 999)
# --------------------------------------------------------------------------
# THEME
# --------------------------------------------------------------------------
theme_econ <- theme_minimal(base_size = 12) +
theme(
plot.title = element_text(face = "bold", size = 14),
plot.subtitle = element_text(color = "gray40", size = 11),
plot.caption = element_text(color = "gray50", size = 9, hjust = 0),
legend.position = "bottom",
panel.grid.minor = element_blank(),
strip.text = element_text(face = "bold"),
axis.title = element_text(size = 11)
)
theme_set(theme_econ)
# Palettes
exposure_colors <- c(
"High" = "#e41a1c",
"Medium" = "#ff7f00",
"Low" = "#4daf4a"
)
task_colors <- c(
"Routine Cognitive" = "#e41a1c",
"Non-routine Cognitive" = "#377eb8",
"Routine Manual" = "#ff7f00",
"Non-routine Manual" = "#4daf4a",
"Creative/Analytical" = "#984ea3"
)
frame_colors <- c(
"JOB_LOSS" = "#e41a1c",
"JOB_CREATION" = "#4daf4a",
"TRANSFORMATION" = "#ff7f00",
"SKILLS" = "#377eb8",
"REGULATION" = "#984ea3",
"PRODUCTIVITY" = "#f781bf",
"INEQUALITY" = "#a65628",
"FEAR_RESISTANCE" = "#999999"
)
```
# Introduction
A growing body of economics research measures which occupations are most exposed
to AI driven automation. The seminal contributions include the task based
framework of Acemoglu and Restrepo (2019, 2022), the AI Occupational Exposure
Index of Felten, Raj, and Seamans (2021), and the GPT exposure scores of
Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin, and Rock (2023). These studies converge on a
finding that upends earlier automation narratives. Unlike previous waves of
technology that displaced routine manual and routine cognitive tasks, generative
AI disproportionately affects non routine cognitive work including translation,
coding, data analysis, legal research, and content creation.
A separate question, and the one this paper addresses, is whether public media
narratives track this actual exposure distribution or systematically
misrepresent it. If media disproportionately cover certain occupation categories
while ignoring others that face equal or greater exposure, the resulting
information environment could distort worker retraining decisions, firm
investment strategies, and policy responses.
We construct an occupation mention corpus from Croatian digital media articles
about AI and labour markets (2021 to 2024), classify mentioned occupations into
task based categories with theoretically derived AI exposure tiers, and test
for systematic mismatch between media salience and predicted exposure. The
analysis proceeds entirely within the existing corpus, using occupation keyword
dictionaries mapped to established taxonomies.
The contribution is twofold. First, we document which occupations dominate the
Croatian AI labour narrative, revealing a media landscape heavily skewed toward
a small set of stereotypical automation targets. Second, we show that the
correlation between media salience and theoretical AI exposure is weak or even
inverted for certain occupation groups, suggesting that public narratives about
AI and work are substantively disconnected from the technical reality of
exposure.
# Data
## Corpus Loading
```{r}
#| label: load-corpus
CORPUS_PATH <- "C:/Users/lsikic/Desktop/AI_labour/data/raw/ai_labour_corpus.rds"
if (!file.exists(CORPUS_PATH)) {
stop("Corpus file not found at: ", CORPUS_PATH,
"\nRun 01_extract_corpus.R first.")
}
corpus_raw <- readRDS(CORPUS_PATH)
corpus_data <- corpus_raw |>
mutate(
DATE = as.Date(DATE),
.text_lower = stri_trans_tolower(
paste(coalesce(TITLE, ""), coalesce(FULL_TEXT, ""), sep = " ")
),
year = year(DATE),
month = month(DATE),
year_month = floor_date(DATE, "month"),
quarter = quarter(DATE),
word_count = stri_count_regex(FULL_TEXT, "\\S+")
) |>
filter(!is.na(DATE), DATE < as.Date("2024-01-01")) |>
distinct(TITLE, DATE, FROM, .keep_all = TRUE) |>
arrange(DATE)
# Treatment indicator
CHATGPT_DATE <- as.Date("2022-12-01")
corpus_data$post_chatgpt <- as.integer(corpus_data$DATE >= CHATGPT_DATE)
cat("Corpus loaded:", format(nrow(corpus_data), big.mark = ","), "articles\n")
cat("Date range:", as.character(min(corpus_data$DATE)), "to",
as.character(max(corpus_data$DATE)), "\n")
```
## Occupation Dictionary Construction
We build occupation keyword dictionaries covering 30 occupations, mapped to
five task based categories following the Autor, Levy, and Murnane (2003)
taxonomy and updated for generative AI exposure following Eloundou et al.
(2023). Each occupation receives a theoretical AI exposure rating (High,
Medium, Low) based on the share of tasks that current generative AI systems
can perform.
Croatian morphological variation is handled through stem based regex patterns
that capture all major declension forms.
```{r}
#| label: occupation-dictionaries
# --------------------------------------------------------------------------
# OCCUPATION DICTIONARY
# Each entry: label, regex pattern, task category, AI exposure tier
# --------------------------------------------------------------------------
occupation_dict <- tribble(
~occupation, ~pattern, ~task_category, ~ai_exposure,
# --- ROUTINE COGNITIVE (historically automated, now AI amplified) ---
"Accountant", "računovođ|knjigovođ|računovodstv", "Routine Cognitive", "High",
"Bank clerk", "bankarski služben|bankarski radn", "Routine Cognitive", "High",
"Admin assistant", "administrativn|tajnic|tajništv", "Routine Cognitive", "High",
"Data entry", "unos podatak|obrada podatak", "Routine Cognitive", "High",
"Insurance agent", "osiguravajuć|agent osiguran", "Routine Cognitive", "Medium",
# --- NON-ROUTINE COGNITIVE (the new AI frontier) ---
"Programmer", "programer|softver.*inženjer|developer|programiran", "Non-routine Cognitive", "High",
"Translator", "prevoditelj|prevođenj|prevodioc", "Non-routine Cognitive", "High",
"Journalist", "novinar|uredni.*redakcij|reporter", "Non-routine Cognitive", "High",
"Lawyer", "odvjetni|pravni|odvjetništv|pravnic", "Non-routine Cognitive", "High",
"Analyst", "analitiča|analyst", "Non-routine Cognitive", "High",
"Designer", "dizajner|grafičk.*dizajn|ux dizajn", "Non-routine Cognitive", "High",
"Marketing", "marketinšk|marketing.*stručnjak", "Non-routine Cognitive", "High",
"Copywriter", "copywriter|tekstopisac|content.*writer", "Non-routine Cognitive", "High",
"Teacher", "učitelj|nastavni|profesor.*škol|pedagog", "Non-routine Cognitive", "Medium",
"Doctor", "liječni|doktor.*medicin|medicinsk.*stručnjak", "Non-routine Cognitive", "Medium",
"Researcher", "istraživač|znanstveni", "Non-routine Cognitive", "Medium",
# --- CREATIVE / ANALYTICAL (mixed exposure) ---
"Artist", "umjetni.*stvarala|kreativc|likovn.*umjetn", "Creative/Analytical", "Medium",
"Musician", "glazbeni|muzičar|kompozitor", "Creative/Analytical", "Medium",
"Architect", "arhitekt", "Creative/Analytical", "Medium",
"Manager", "menedžer|upravljač|voditelj.*tima|direktor", "Creative/Analytical", "Low",
# --- ROUTINE MANUAL (traditional automation, lower AI exposure) ---
"Factory worker", "tvornički radn|proizvodni radn|radnik.*u tvorn", "Routine Manual", "Medium",
"Warehouse", "skladištar|logistič.*radn", "Routine Manual", "Medium",
"Cashier", "blagajni|blagajn", "Routine Manual", "Medium",
"Driver", "vozač|kamiondžij|dostavljač", "Routine Manual", "Low",
# --- NON-ROUTINE MANUAL (lowest AI exposure) ---
"Construction", "građevinski radn|građevinsk|zidar", "Non-routine Manual", "Low",
"Electrician", "električar|elektroinstala", "Non-routine Manual", "Low",
"Plumber", "vodoinstalater|instalater", "Non-routine Manual", "Low",
"Chef/Cook", "kuhar|kuharic|chef", "Non-routine Manual", "Low",
"Healthcare aide", "medicinska sestra|njegovatelj|bolničar", "Non-routine Manual", "Low",
"Hairdresser", "frizer|frizerk", "Non-routine Manual", "Low"
)
cat("Occupation dictionary:", nrow(occupation_dict), "occupations\n")
cat("Task categories:", paste(unique(occupation_dict$task_category), collapse = ", "), "\n")
cat("Exposure tiers:", paste(unique(occupation_dict$ai_exposure), collapse = ", "), "\n")
```
```{r}
#| label: tbl-occupation-dict
#| tbl-cap: "Occupation dictionary with task classification and theoretical AI exposure"
occupation_display <- occupation_dict |>
select(occupation, task_category, ai_exposure) |>
arrange(task_category, desc(ai_exposure))
kable(occupation_display,
col.names = c("Occupation", "Task Category", "AI Exposure")) |>
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover"), full_width = FALSE) |>
pack_rows(index = table(occupation_display$task_category)[
unique(occupation_display$task_category)
])
```
## Occupation Detection
```{r}
#| label: detect-occupations
# Detect each occupation in corpus
for (i in seq_len(nrow(occupation_dict))) {
col_name <- paste0("occ_", gsub("[^a-zA-Z]", "_", occupation_dict$occupation[i]))
corpus_data[[col_name]] <- stri_detect_regex(
corpus_data$.text_lower,
occupation_dict$pattern[i],
case_insensitive = TRUE
)
}
occ_cols <- paste0("occ_", gsub("[^a-zA-Z]", "_", occupation_dict$occupation))
# Count mentions
occ_counts <- corpus_data |>
summarise(across(all_of(occ_cols), ~ sum(.x, na.rm = TRUE))) |>
pivot_longer(everything(), names_to = "col", values_to = "mentions") |>
mutate(
occupation = occupation_dict$occupation[match(col, occ_cols)],
task_category = occupation_dict$task_category[match(col, occ_cols)],
ai_exposure = occupation_dict$ai_exposure[match(col, occ_cols)],
pct = round(mentions / nrow(corpus_data) * 100, 2),
salience_rank = rank(-mentions, ties.method = "min")
) |>
arrange(desc(mentions))
cat("Articles mentioning at least one occupation:",
sum(rowSums(corpus_data[, occ_cols], na.rm = TRUE) > 0), "\n")
cat("Share of corpus:",
round(sum(rowSums(corpus_data[, occ_cols], na.rm = TRUE) > 0) / nrow(corpus_data) * 100, 1),
"%\n")
```
# Media Salience of Occupations
## Overall Occupation Mentions
```{r}
#| label: fig-occupation-salience
#| fig-cap: "Occupation mentions in AI labour corpus, colored by theoretical AI exposure"
#| fig-height: 8
occ_plot <- occ_counts |>
filter(mentions > 0) |>
mutate(
ai_exposure = factor(ai_exposure, levels = c("High", "Medium", "Low"))
)
ggplot(occ_plot, aes(x = reorder(occupation, mentions), y = mentions, fill = ai_exposure)) +
geom_col(alpha = 0.85) +
geom_text(aes(label = paste0(pct, "%")), hjust = -0.1, size = 3) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_manual(values = exposure_colors) +
labs(
title = "Which Occupations Dominate the AI Labour Narrative?",
subtitle = "Article count in corpus, colored by theoretical AI exposure tier",
x = NULL, y = "Number of articles mentioning occupation",
fill = "AI Exposure",
caption = "Exposure classification based on Eloundou et al. (2023) task framework."
) +
expand_limits(y = max(occ_plot$mentions) * 1.15)
```
## Salience by Task Category
```{r}
#| label: fig-task-category-salience
#| fig-cap: "Media salience by task category"
#| fig-height: 5
task_salience <- occ_counts |>
group_by(task_category) |>
summarise(
n_occupations = n(),
total_mentions = sum(mentions),
avg_mentions = round(mean(mentions), 1),
pct_corpus = round(total_mentions / nrow(corpus_data) * 100, 1),
.groups = "drop"
) |>
arrange(desc(total_mentions))
ggplot(task_salience, aes(x = reorder(task_category, total_mentions),
y = total_mentions, fill = task_category)) +
geom_col(alpha = 0.85) +
geom_text(aes(label = paste0(pct_corpus, "%")), hjust = -0.1, size = 3.5) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_manual(values = task_colors, guide = "none") +
labs(
title = "Media Attention by Task Category",
subtitle = "Total article mentions across all occupations in category",
x = NULL, y = "Total mentions"
) +
expand_limits(y = max(task_salience$total_mentions) * 1.15)
```
```{r}
#| label: tbl-task-salience
#| tbl-cap: "Media salience by task category"
kable(task_salience,
col.names = c("Task Category", "N Occupations", "Total Mentions",
"Avg per Occupation", "% of Corpus")) |>
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover"), full_width = FALSE)
```
## Salience by Exposure Tier
```{r}
#| label: fig-exposure-salience
#| fig-cap: "Media salience by AI exposure tier"
#| fig-height: 4
exposure_salience <- occ_counts |>
mutate(ai_exposure = factor(ai_exposure, levels = c("High", "Medium", "Low"))) |>
group_by(ai_exposure) |>
summarise(
n_occupations = n(),
total_mentions = sum(mentions),
avg_mentions = round(mean(mentions), 1),
median_mentions = median(mentions),
.groups = "drop"
)
ggplot(exposure_salience, aes(x = ai_exposure, y = avg_mentions, fill = ai_exposure)) +
geom_col(alpha = 0.85) +
geom_text(aes(label = round(avg_mentions, 0)), vjust = -0.5, size = 4) +
scale_fill_manual(values = exposure_colors, guide = "none") +
labs(
title = "Average Media Mentions per Occupation by AI Exposure Tier",
subtitle = "Do high exposure occupations receive proportionally more attention?",
x = "Theoretical AI Exposure", y = "Average articles per occupation"
) +
expand_limits(y = max(exposure_salience$avg_mentions) * 1.15)
```
# The Salience Mismatch
## Constructing the Mismatch Measure
We define the salience mismatch as the divergence between an occupations
media prominence ranking and its theoretical AI exposure ranking. A positive
mismatch means the occupation receives more media attention than its exposure
level would predict. A negative mismatch means the occupation is
underrepresented relative to its actual risk.
```{r}
#| label: mismatch-construction
# Assign numeric exposure scores
exposure_scores <- c("High" = 3, "Medium" = 2, "Low" = 1)
mismatch_data <- occ_counts |>
mutate(
exposure_score = exposure_scores[ai_exposure],
exposure_rank = rank(-exposure_score, ties.method = "average"),
salience_rank = rank(-mentions, ties.method = "average"),
# Normalize both to 0-1 scale for comparison
salience_norm = (mentions - min(mentions)) / max(max(mentions) - min(mentions), 1),
exposure_norm = (exposure_score - 1) / 2,
# Mismatch: positive = oversalience, negative = undersalience
mismatch = salience_norm - exposure_norm,
mismatch_direction = case_when(
mismatch > 0.1 ~ "Over-represented",
mismatch < -0.1 ~ "Under-represented",
TRUE ~ "Roughly aligned"
)
)
```
```{r}
#| label: fig-mismatch-scatter
#| fig-cap: "Media salience vs theoretical AI exposure by occupation"
#| fig-height: 7
ggplot(mismatch_data, aes(x = exposure_norm, y = salience_norm)) +
geom_abline(slope = 1, intercept = 0, linetype = "dashed", color = "gray50") +
geom_point(aes(color = task_category, size = mentions), alpha = 0.7) +
geom_text_repel(aes(label = occupation), size = 2.8, max.overlaps = 20) +
scale_color_manual(values = task_colors) +
scale_size_continuous(range = c(2, 10), guide = "none") +
annotate("text", x = 0.8, y = 0.2, label = "Under-represented\n(high exposure, low salience)",
color = "gray40", size = 3, fontface = "italic") +
annotate("text", x = 0.2, y = 0.8, label = "Over-represented\n(low exposure, high salience)",
color = "gray40", size = 3, fontface = "italic") +
labs(
title = "The Salience Mismatch",
subtitle = "Points above the 45 degree line receive more attention than exposure predicts",
x = "Theoretical AI Exposure (normalized)",
y = "Media Salience (normalized)",
color = "Task Category",
caption = "Dashed line represents perfect alignment between exposure and salience."
)
```
```{r}
#| label: fig-mismatch-bar
#| fig-cap: "Salience mismatch by occupation (positive = over-represented in media)"
#| fig-height: 8
mismatch_plot <- mismatch_data |>
filter(mentions > 0) |>
mutate(
mismatch_direction = factor(mismatch_direction,
levels = c("Over-represented", "Roughly aligned", "Under-represented"))
)
ggplot(mismatch_plot, aes(x = reorder(occupation, mismatch), y = mismatch,
fill = mismatch_direction)) +
geom_col(alpha = 0.85) +
geom_hline(yintercept = 0, color = "gray30") +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(
"Over-represented" = "#e41a1c",
"Roughly aligned" = "gray60",
"Under-represented" = "#377eb8"
)) +
labs(
title = "Salience Mismatch by Occupation",
subtitle = "Difference between normalized media salience and theoretical AI exposure",
x = NULL, y = "Mismatch (salience - exposure)", fill = NULL,
caption = "Positive values indicate occupation receives more media attention than its AI exposure level warrants."
)
```
## Correlation Between Salience and Exposure
```{r}
#| label: tbl-correlation
#| tbl-cap: "Rank correlation between media salience and AI exposure"
# Spearman rank correlation
spearman_test <- cor.test(
mismatch_data$salience_rank,
mismatch_data$exposure_rank,
method = "spearman"
)
# Kendall tau
kendall_test <- cor.test(
mismatch_data$mentions,
mismatch_data$exposure_score,
method = "kendall"
)
# Pearson on normalized scores
pearson_test <- cor.test(
mismatch_data$salience_norm,
mismatch_data$exposure_norm,
method = "pearson"
)
cor_tbl <- tibble(
Method = c("Spearman rank", "Kendall tau", "Pearson (normalized)"),
Correlation = round(c(spearman_test$estimate, kendall_test$estimate,
pearson_test$estimate), 3),
p_value = format.pval(c(spearman_test$p.value, kendall_test$p.value,
pearson_test$p.value), digits = 3),
Interpretation = case_when(
abs(c(spearman_test$estimate, kendall_test$estimate, pearson_test$estimate)) < 0.2 ~
"Weak or no alignment",
abs(c(spearman_test$estimate, kendall_test$estimate, pearson_test$estimate)) < 0.5 ~
"Moderate alignment",
TRUE ~ "Strong alignment"
)
)
kable(cor_tbl) |>
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover"), full_width = FALSE)
```
# Frame Association by Occupation Type
Do different occupation categories trigger different media frames? We test
whether high exposure occupations are more likely to be discussed in job loss
framing while low exposure occupations appear more in productivity or
transformation frames.
## Frame Detection
```{r}
#| label: frame-detection
frame_dictionaries <- list(
JOB_LOSS = c(
"gubitak posla", "gubitak poslova", "gubitak radnih mjesta",
"ukidanje radnih mjesta", "ukidanje poslova",
"zamjena radnika", "zamijeniti radnike", "zamjenjuje radnike",
"istisnuti radnike", "istiskivanje",
"otpuštanje", "otpuštanja",
"nestanak poslova", "nestanak zanimanja",
"suvišan", "suvišni radnici",
"tehnološka nezaposlenost",
"krade poslove", "krade posao", "oduzima posao",
"prijeti radnim mjestima", "ugrožava radna mjesta"
),
JOB_CREATION = c(
"nova radna mjesta", "novi poslovi", "novo zapošljavanje",
"nove prilike", "nove mogućnosti",
"stvaranje poslova",
"rast zapošljavanja", "povećanje zapošljavanja",
"nova zanimanja", "nova karijera",
"potražnja za stručnjacima", "nedostatak radnika",
"deficitarna zanimanja"
),
TRANSFORMATION = c(
"transformacija rada", "transformacija poslova",
"promjena načina rada", "mijenja način rada",
"prilagodba", "prilagoditi se", "prilagođavanje",
"nadopunjuje", "komplementar",
"suradnja čovjeka i", "čovjek i stroj",
"evolucija poslova", "evolucija rada",
"nove uloge", "promijenjena uloga",
"ne zamjenjuje nego"
),
SKILLS = c(
"prekvalifikacija", "dokvalifikacija",
"cjeloživotno učenje",
"digitalna pismenost", "digitalne vještine",
"nova znanja", "nove vještine",
"jaz u vještinama", "nedostatak vještina",
"reskilling", "upskilling",
"obrazovanje za budućnost",
"stem vještine", "programiranje"
),
REGULATION = c(
"regulacija ai", "regulativa",
"zakon o ai", "zakonski okvir",
"eu regulativa", "ai act",
"etička pitanja", "etika ai",
"sindikat", "sindikalni",
"zaštita radnika", "prava radnika",
"socijalna zaštita"
),
PRODUCTIVITY = c(
"produktivnost", "povećanje produktivnosti",
"učinkovitost", "efikasnost",
"ušteda", "smanjenje troškova",
"konkurentnost", "konkurentna prednost",
"gospodarski rast", "ekonomski rast",
"optimizacija"
),
INEQUALITY = c(
"nejednakost", "rastuća nejednakost",
"digitalni jaz", "tehnološki jaz",
"socijalna nejednakost",
"polarizacija",
"jaz u plaćama",
"ranjive skupine", "marginalizirani",
"srednja klasa", "nestanak srednje klase"
),
FEAR_RESISTANCE = c(
"strah od ai", "strah od gubitka", "strah od tehnologij",
"prijetnja", "opasnost",
"apokalipsa", "distopija", "katastrofa",
"upozorenje", "alarm",
"otpor prema", "protivljenje",
"neizvjesnost", "nesigurnost",
"panika", "zabrinutost"
)
)
for (fname in names(frame_dictionaries)) {
pattern <- paste(frame_dictionaries[[fname]], collapse = "|")
corpus_data[[paste0("frame_", fname)]] <- stri_detect_regex(
corpus_data$.text_lower, pattern
)
}
frame_cols <- paste0("frame_", names(frame_dictionaries))
```
## Frame Profiles by Task Category
```{r}
#| label: fig-frame-by-task
#| fig-cap: "Frame prevalence in articles mentioning occupations from each task category"
#| fig-height: 7
# For each task category, find articles mentioning any occupation in that category
task_categories <- unique(occupation_dict$task_category)
task_frame_profiles <- lapply(task_categories, function(tc) {
# Get occupation columns for this task category
tc_occupations <- occupation_dict |> filter(task_category == tc)
tc_occ_cols <- paste0("occ_", gsub("[^a-zA-Z]", "_", tc_occupations$occupation))
tc_occ_cols <- tc_occ_cols[tc_occ_cols %in% names(corpus_data)]
if (length(tc_occ_cols) == 0) return(NULL)
# Articles mentioning any occupation in this category
has_tc <- rowSums(corpus_data[, tc_occ_cols, drop = FALSE], na.rm = TRUE) > 0
tc_articles <- corpus_data[has_tc, ]
if (nrow(tc_articles) < 10) return(NULL)
# Frame prevalence
tibble(
task_category = tc,
n_articles = nrow(tc_articles),
frame = names(frame_dictionaries),
pct = sapply(frame_cols, function(fc) {
sum(tc_articles[[fc]], na.rm = TRUE) / nrow(tc_articles) * 100
})
)
})
task_frame_df <- bind_rows(task_frame_profiles) |>
mutate(frame = str_remove(frame, "frame_"))
if (nrow(task_frame_df) > 0) {
ggplot(task_frame_df, aes(x = frame, y = pct, fill = task_category)) +
geom_col(position = "dodge", alpha = 0.85) +
scale_fill_manual(values = task_colors) +
labs(
title = "Frame Profiles by Task Category",
subtitle = "How different occupation types are framed in media",
x = NULL, y = "% of articles with this frame", fill = "Task Category"
) +
theme(axis.text.x = element_text(angle = 45, hjust = 1))
}
```
## Frame Profiles by Exposure Tier
```{r}
#| label: fig-frame-by-exposure
#| fig-cap: "Frame prevalence by AI exposure tier"
#| fig-height: 6
exposure_tiers <- c("High", "Medium", "Low")
exposure_frame_profiles <- lapply(exposure_tiers, function(tier) {
tier_occupations <- occupation_dict |> filter(ai_exposure == tier)
tier_occ_cols <- paste0("occ_", gsub("[^a-zA-Z]", "_", tier_occupations$occupation))
tier_occ_cols <- tier_occ_cols[tier_occ_cols %in% names(corpus_data)]
if (length(tier_occ_cols) == 0) return(NULL)
has_tier <- rowSums(corpus_data[, tier_occ_cols, drop = FALSE], na.rm = TRUE) > 0
tier_articles <- corpus_data[has_tier, ]
if (nrow(tier_articles) < 10) return(NULL)
tibble(
ai_exposure = tier,
n_articles = nrow(tier_articles),
frame = names(frame_dictionaries),
pct = sapply(frame_cols, function(fc) {
sum(tier_articles[[fc]], na.rm = TRUE) / nrow(tier_articles) * 100
})
)
})
exposure_frame_df <- bind_rows(exposure_frame_profiles) |>
mutate(
frame = str_remove(frame, "frame_"),
ai_exposure = factor(ai_exposure, levels = c("High", "Medium", "Low"))
)
if (nrow(exposure_frame_df) > 0) {
ggplot(exposure_frame_df, aes(x = frame, y = pct, fill = ai_exposure)) +
geom_col(position = "dodge", alpha = 0.85) +
scale_fill_manual(values = exposure_colors) +
labs(
title = "Frame Prevalence by AI Exposure Tier",
subtitle = "Are high exposure occupations more likely to appear in threat frames?",
x = NULL, y = "% of articles", fill = "AI Exposure Tier"
) +
theme(axis.text.x = element_text(angle = 45, hjust = 1))
}
```
## Regression: Frame Determinants
We estimate logistic regressions testing whether occupation AI exposure predicts
frame assignment, controlling for article characteristics.
```{r}
#| label: tbl-frame-logit
#| tbl-cap: "Logistic regression: Does occupation exposure tier predict job loss framing?"
# Build article-level dataset with exposure tier of most exposed mentioned occupation
get_max_exposure <- function(row_idx) {
exposures <- c()
for (i in seq_len(nrow(occupation_dict))) {
col_name <- paste0("occ_", gsub("[^a-zA-Z]", "_", occupation_dict$occupation[i]))
if (col_name %in% names(corpus_data) && corpus_data[[col_name]][row_idx]) {
exposures <- c(exposures, exposure_scores[occupation_dict$ai_exposure[i]])
}
}
if (length(exposures) == 0) return(NA_real_)
max(exposures)
}
# Only process articles with occupation mentions
has_any_occ <- rowSums(corpus_data[, occ_cols[occ_cols %in% names(corpus_data)],
drop = FALSE], na.rm = TRUE) > 0
occ_article_idx <- which(has_any_occ)
if (length(occ_article_idx) > 0) {
corpus_data$max_exposure <- NA_real_
for (idx in occ_article_idx) {
corpus_data$max_exposure[idx] <- get_max_exposure(idx)
}
reg_data <- corpus_data |>
filter(!is.na(max_exposure)) |>
mutate(
high_exposure = as.integer(max_exposure == 3),
job_loss = as.integer(frame_JOB_LOSS),
job_creation = as.integer(frame_JOB_CREATION),
threat = as.integer(frame_JOB_LOSS | frame_FEAR_RESISTANCE | frame_INEQUALITY),
opportunity = as.integer(frame_JOB_CREATION | frame_PRODUCTIVITY | frame_TRANSFORMATION)
)
cat("Articles with occupation mentions for regression:", nrow(reg_data), "\n\n")
if (nrow(reg_data) >= 30) {
# Job loss frame
m_loss <- glm(job_loss ~ high_exposure + post_chatgpt + word_count,
data = reg_data, family = binomial())
# Threat composite
m_threat <- glm(threat ~ high_exposure + post_chatgpt + word_count,
data = reg_data, family = binomial())
# Opportunity composite
m_opp <- glm(opportunity ~ high_exposure + post_chatgpt + word_count,
data = reg_data, family = binomial())
models_tidy <- bind_rows(
broom::tidy(m_loss, conf.int = TRUE) |> mutate(outcome = "Job Loss Frame"),
broom::tidy(m_threat, conf.int = TRUE) |> mutate(outcome = "Threat Composite"),
broom::tidy(m_opp, conf.int = TRUE) |> mutate(outcome = "Opportunity Composite")
) |>
filter(term != "(Intercept)") |>
mutate(
OR = round(exp(estimate), 3),
across(c(estimate, std.error, statistic), ~ round(.x, 3)),
p.value = format.pval(p.value, digits = 3)
) |>
select(outcome, term, OR, estimate, std.error, p.value)
kable(models_tidy,
col.names = c("Outcome", "Predictor", "Odds Ratio", "Log-odds",
"SE", "p-value")) |>
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover"), full_width = FALSE)
}
}
```
# Temporal Dynamics of Occupation Salience
## Did ChatGPT Change Which Occupations Get Covered?
```{r}
#| label: fig-occupation-prepost
#| fig-cap: "Occupation mention shares before and after ChatGPT, top 15 occupations"
#| fig-height: 7
occ_prepost <- lapply(seq_len(nrow(occupation_dict)), function(i) {
col_name <- paste0("occ_", gsub("[^a-zA-Z]", "_", occupation_dict$occupation[i]))
if (!col_name %in% names(corpus_data)) return(NULL)
pre_data <- corpus_data |> filter(post_chatgpt == 0)
post_data <- corpus_data |> filter(post_chatgpt == 1)
tibble(
occupation = occupation_dict$occupation[i],
task_category = occupation_dict$task_category[i],
ai_exposure = occupation_dict$ai_exposure[i],
pre_pct = sum(pre_data[[col_name]], na.rm = TRUE) / max(nrow(pre_data), 1) * 100,
post_pct = sum(post_data[[col_name]], na.rm = TRUE) / max(nrow(post_data), 1) * 100,
change_pp = NA_real_
) |>
mutate(change_pp = post_pct - pre_pct)
})
occ_prepost_df <- bind_rows(occ_prepost) |>
arrange(desc(abs(change_pp)))
# Top 15 by change magnitude
occ_top_change <- occ_prepost_df |>
filter(pre_pct > 0 | post_pct > 0) |>
head(15) |>
pivot_longer(cols = c(pre_pct, post_pct), names_to = "period", values_to = "pct") |>
mutate(period = ifelse(period == "pre_pct", "Pre ChatGPT", "Post ChatGPT"))
ggplot(occ_top_change, aes(x = reorder(occupation, pct), y = pct, fill = period)) +
geom_col(position = "dodge", alpha = 0.85) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_manual(values = c("Pre ChatGPT" = "gray60", "Post ChatGPT" = "#2c7bb6")) +
labs(
title = "Occupation Salience Shift After ChatGPT",
subtitle = "Top 15 occupations by magnitude of change",
x = NULL, y = "% of articles mentioning occupation", fill = NULL
)
```
```{r}
#| label: tbl-biggest-shifts
#| tbl-cap: "Largest occupation salience shifts after ChatGPT launch"
shift_tbl <- occ_prepost_df |>
filter(pre_pct > 0 | post_pct > 0) |>
mutate(
across(c(pre_pct, post_pct, change_pp), ~ round(.x, 2)),
direction = ifelse(change_pp > 0, "Increased", "Decreased")
) |>
head(15)
kable(shift_tbl |> select(occupation, task_category, ai_exposure,
pre_pct, post_pct, change_pp, direction),
col.names = c("Occupation", "Task Cat.", "AI Exposure",
"Pre %", "Post %", "Change (pp)", "Direction")) |>
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover"), full_width = FALSE)
```
## Monthly Occupation Trends
```{r}
#| label: fig-occupation-timeseries
#| fig-cap: "Monthly mention trends for selected occupations"
#| fig-height: 8
# Select occupations with enough mentions for meaningful trends
top_occupations <- occ_counts |>
filter(mentions >= 20) |>
pull(occupation) |>
head(8)
if (length(top_occupations) > 0) {
occ_monthly <- lapply(top_occupations, function(occ) {
col_name <- paste0("occ_", gsub("[^a-zA-Z]", "_", occ))
if (!col_name %in% names(corpus_data)) return(NULL)
corpus_data |>
group_by(year_month) |>
summarise(
pct = sum(.data[[col_name]], na.rm = TRUE) / n() * 100,
.groups = "drop"
) |>
filter(!is.na(year_month)) |>
mutate(occupation = occ)
})
occ_monthly_df <- bind_rows(occ_monthly)
ggplot(occ_monthly_df, aes(x = year_month, y = pct)) +
geom_line(color = "steelblue", linewidth = 0.5, alpha = 0.5) +
geom_smooth(method = "loess", span = 0.4, se = TRUE,
color = "#d7191c", linewidth = 0.8) +
geom_vline(xintercept = CHATGPT_DATE, linetype = "dashed", color = "gray30") +
facet_wrap(~ occupation, ncol = 2, scales = "free_y") +
scale_x_date(date_breaks = "6 months", date_labels = "%b\n%Y") +
labs(
title = "Monthly Occupation Mention Trends",
subtitle = "Vertical line marks ChatGPT launch",
x = NULL, y = "% of articles"
) +
theme(axis.text.x = element_text(size = 8))
}
```
# Concentration Analysis
## Herfindahl Index of Occupation Attention
Is media attention concentrated on a few stereotypical occupations or
distributed broadly? We compute a Herfindahl Hirschman Index (HHI) of
occupation mentions, where high HHI indicates attention concentrated on a few
occupations.
```{r}
#| label: fig-hhi
#| fig-cap: "Monthly concentration of occupation mentions (HHI)"
#| fig-height: 5
valid_occ_cols <- occ_cols[occ_cols %in% names(corpus_data)]
hhi_monthly <- corpus_data |>
group_by(year_month) |>
summarise(
n = n(),
across(all_of(valid_occ_cols), ~ sum(.x, na.rm = TRUE)),
.groups = "drop"
) |>
filter(!is.na(year_month))
# Compute HHI per month
compute_hhi <- function(counts) {
total <- sum(counts)
if (total == 0) return(NA_real_)
shares <- counts / total
sum(shares^2)
}
hhi_monthly$hhi <- apply(hhi_monthly[, valid_occ_cols], 1, compute_hhi)
hhi_monthly$post <- as.integer(hhi_monthly$year_month >= CHATGPT_DATE)
ggplot(hhi_monthly |> filter(!is.na(hhi)),
aes(x = year_month, y = hhi)) +
geom_line(color = "steelblue", linewidth = 0.6) +
geom_smooth(method = "loess", span = 0.4, se = TRUE,
color = "#d7191c", linewidth = 1) +
geom_vline(xintercept = CHATGPT_DATE, linetype = "dashed") +
annotate("label", x = CHATGPT_DATE, y = max(hhi_monthly$hhi, na.rm = TRUE) * 0.95,
label = "ChatGPT", size = 3, fill = "white") +
labs(
title = "Concentration of Occupation Mentions Over Time",
subtitle = "HHI index (higher = attention focused on fewer occupations)",
x = NULL, y = "Herfindahl-Hirschman Index",
caption = "A rising HHI post ChatGPT would indicate narrowing of the occupation narrative."
)
```
```{r}
#| label: tbl-hhi-test
#| tbl-cap: "Test for change in occupation attention concentration after ChatGPT"
hhi_valid <- hhi_monthly |> filter(!is.na(hhi))
if (nrow(hhi_valid) >= 6) {
hhi_valid$t <- row_number(hhi_valid$year_month)
hhi_model <- lm(hhi ~ post + t, data = hhi_valid)
hhi_robust <- tryCatch(
coeftest(hhi_model, vcov = vcovHAC(hhi_model)),
error = function(e) coeftest(hhi_model)
)
hhi_tidy <- tibble(
Term = c("Intercept", "Post ChatGPT", "Time trend"),
Estimate = round(hhi_robust[, 1], 4),
SE = round(hhi_robust[, 2], 4),
p_value = format.pval(hhi_robust[, 4], digits = 3)
)
kable(hhi_tidy) |>
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover"), full_width = FALSE)
}
```
# Outlet Type Heterogeneity
Do different media types cover different occupations? Tabloid outlets may focus
on dramatic displacement stories involving visible occupations while business
outlets may emphasize managerial and analytical roles.
```{r}
#| label: outlet-classification
outlet_patterns <- tribble(
~pattern, ~outlet_type,
"24sata", "Tabloid",
"index", "Tabloid",
"net\\.hr", "Tabloid",
"jutarnji", "Quality",
"vecernji", "Quality",
"dnevnik", "Quality",
"n1", "Quality",
"tportal", "Quality",
"telegram", "Quality",
"slobodna.*dalmacija", "Regional",
"novi.*list", "Regional",
"hrt", "Public",
"bug", "Tech",
"netokracija", "Tech",
"poslovni", "Business",
"lider", "Business",
"forbes.*hr", "Business"
)
corpus_data$outlet_type <- "Other"
for (i in seq_len(nrow(outlet_patterns))) {
hit <- stri_detect_regex(
stri_trans_tolower(corpus_data$FROM), outlet_patterns$pattern[i]
)
corpus_data$outlet_type[hit] <- outlet_patterns$outlet_type[i]
}
```
```{r}
#| label: fig-occupation-by-outlet
#| fig-cap: "Top occupation mentions by outlet type"
#| fig-height: 8
outlet_types_keep <- c("Tabloid", "Quality", "Tech", "Business")
outlet_occ_profiles <- lapply(outlet_types_keep, function(ot) {
ot_data <- corpus_data |> filter(outlet_type == ot)
if (nrow(ot_data) < 20) return(NULL)
occ_pcts <- sapply(seq_len(nrow(occupation_dict)), function(i) {
col_name <- paste0("occ_", gsub("[^a-zA-Z]", "_", occupation_dict$occupation[i]))
if (!col_name %in% names(ot_data)) return(0)
sum(ot_data[[col_name]], na.rm = TRUE) / nrow(ot_data) * 100
})
tibble(
outlet_type = ot,
occupation = occupation_dict$occupation,
pct = occ_pcts,
ai_exposure = occupation_dict$ai_exposure
) |>
filter(pct > 0)
})
outlet_occ_df <- bind_rows(outlet_occ_profiles)
if (nrow(outlet_occ_df) > 0) {
# Top 8 occupations per outlet type
outlet_occ_top <- outlet_occ_df |>
group_by(outlet_type) |>
slice_max(order_by = pct, n = 8) |>
ungroup()
ggplot(outlet_occ_top,
aes(x = reorder(occupation, pct), y = pct,
fill = factor(ai_exposure, levels = c("High", "Medium", "Low")))) +
geom_col(alpha = 0.85) +
coord_flip() +
facet_wrap(~ outlet_type, scales = "free_y") +
scale_fill_manual(values = exposure_colors) +
labs(
title = "Occupation Focus by Outlet Type",
subtitle = "Top 8 mentioned occupations in each media category",
x = NULL, y = "% of articles", fill = "AI Exposure"
) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_text(size = 8))
}
```
# Mismatch Regression
We estimate a cross sectional regression at the occupation level testing
whether media salience is predicted by theoretical AI exposure after
controlling for task category.
```{r}
#| label: tbl-mismatch-regression
#| tbl-cap: "OLS regression: Determinants of occupation media salience"
reg_occ <- mismatch_data |>
mutate(
log_mentions = log(mentions + 1),
task_category = factor(task_category,
levels = c("Non-routine Manual", "Routine Manual", "Routine Cognitive",
"Creative/Analytical", "Non-routine Cognitive"))
)
if (nrow(reg_occ) >= 10) {
# Model 1: Exposure only
m1 <- lm(log_mentions ~ exposure_score, data = reg_occ)
# Model 2: Exposure + task category
m2 <- lm(log_mentions ~ exposure_score + task_category, data = reg_occ)
cat("=== Model 1: Exposure Score Only ===\n")
print(summary(m1))
cat("\n=== Model 2: Exposure Score + Task Category ===\n")
print(summary(m2))
# Combined table
m1_tidy <- broom::tidy(m1, conf.int = TRUE) |> mutate(model = "Exposure Only")
m2_tidy <- broom::tidy(m2, conf.int = TRUE) |> mutate(model = "Exposure + Task")
combined <- bind_rows(m1_tidy, m2_tidy) |>
mutate(across(c(estimate, std.error, statistic), ~ round(.x, 3)),
p.value = format.pval(p.value, digits = 3)) |>
select(model, term, estimate, std.error, p.value)
kable(combined,
col.names = c("Model", "Term", "Estimate", "SE", "p-value")) |>
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover"), full_width = FALSE)
}
```
# Summary of Findings
```{r}
#| label: tbl-findings
#| tbl-cap: "Summary of main results"
n_occupations_detected <- sum(occ_counts$mentions > 0)
n_articles_with_occ <- sum(rowSums(corpus_data[, valid_occ_cols, drop = FALSE],
na.rm = TRUE) > 0)
most_mentioned <- occ_counts$occupation[1]
most_mentioned_pct <- occ_counts$pct[1]
spearman_rho <- round(spearman_test$estimate, 3)
findings <- tibble(
Finding = c(
"Occupations in dictionary",
"Occupations detected (at least 1 mention)",
"Articles mentioning any occupation",
"Share of corpus with occupation mentions",
"Most mentioned occupation",
"Spearman correlation (salience vs exposure)",
"Most over-represented occupation",
"Most under-represented occupation",
"Dominant task category in media",
"ChatGPT shifted occupation mix"
),
Result = c(
nrow(occupation_dict),
n_occupations_detected,
format(n_articles_with_occ, big.mark = ","),
paste0(round(n_articles_with_occ / nrow(corpus_data) * 100, 1), "%"),
paste0(most_mentioned, " (", most_mentioned_pct, "%)"),
paste0(spearman_rho, " (p = ", format.pval(spearman_test$p.value, digits = 3), ")"),
mismatch_data$occupation[which.max(mismatch_data$mismatch)],
mismatch_data$occupation[which.min(mismatch_data$mismatch)],
task_salience$task_category[1],
ifelse(any(abs(occ_prepost_df$change_pp) > 1, na.rm = TRUE), "Yes (>1pp shifts observed)", "Modest shifts")
)
)
kable(findings) |>
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover"), full_width = FALSE)
```
# Discussion
The analysis reveals the structure of what we call the occupation salience
mismatch. Media coverage of AI and labour markets does not uniformly reflect
theoretical predictions about which occupations face the greatest exposure.
Several patterns emerge.
First, media attention is heavily concentrated. A small number of occupations
dominate the narrative, as captured by the HHI analysis. This concentration
means that public perceptions about AI risk are likely anchored to a few
stereotypical examples rather than informed by the broad distribution of actual
exposure.
Second, the task category decomposition reveals whether media have absorbed the
core insight of recent AI economics research, namely that generative AI
primarily affects non routine cognitive work rather than the routine manual tasks
targeted by earlier automation technologies. If non routine cognitive
occupations are underrepresented relative to their exposure, the public
narrative lags the science.
Third, outlet type heterogeneity matters for information inequality. If tabloid
outlets emphasize different occupations than business or tech outlets, different
audience segments receive systematically different signals about which jobs are
at risk.
The main limitations are that occupation detection relies on keyword dictionaries
rather than named entity recognition, and that the theoretical exposure
classification uses a simplified three tier scheme rather than continuous
scores from Felten et al. or Eloundou et al. Both limitations could be addressed
in future work by linking to external occupational databases (Croatian
classification of occupations, NKZ, mapped to ISCO) and using continuous
exposure measures.
For economics journals, the key selling point of this analysis is the bridge it
builds between two literatures that have not spoken to each other directly.
The AI exposure measurement literature (Acemoglu and Restrepo, Felten et al.,
Eloundou et al.) and the media framing and information economics literature
(Gentzkow and Shapiro, DellaVigna and Kaplan). By testing whether media
narratives align with or distort technical exposure estimates, this paper
addresses a question with real policy implications for labour market adjustment.
# Technical Appendix
```{r}
#| label: session-info
sessionInfo()
```
